All posts by Roberto Santos

Roberto Santos is an avid outdoorsman, prolific reader, writer and web developer currently stationed in the Colorado high country. Originally from the Northern Mariana Islands, his work, study and adventures have taken him from surfing across the Pacific, to climbing the highest peaks in Japan and Colorado.
Acclimation

Sleep at Altitude

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Reported Sleep Disturbances

Many travelers report a decrease of quality of sleep when traveling from sea-level to high altitudes. Newcomers to altitude typically describe trouble falling asleep and frequent wakings throughout the night.7 One study determined that 46% of 100 Iranian ski tourists reported frequent awakenings and other sleep disturbances such as insomnia during their first night sleeping at 3,500 m.5,7 Another study analyzed data from reports of 305 Chinese soldiers transported from 500 m to 3,700 m in Lhasa and found similar results. Approximately, 32% of the soldiers reported insomnia in the first night at altitude and 74% of 246 workers who were air-lifted to the South Pole at 2,835 m reported difficulty falling and staying asleep throughout the first week.1

Change in Breathing Pattern

Many theories state that the “periodic breathing pattern,” common during sleep at high altitude, is a potential cause of sleep disturbances. Periodic breathing is a form of Cheyne-Stokes respiration and reflects changes in neural signaling due to hypoxia and alkalosis during sleep.4 Hypoxia is a respiratory stimulant while alkalosis is a respiratory depressant.4 This mixed signaling is the source of the altered breathing during non-REM sleep encountered at altitudes over 2500 m. The frequency of periodic breathing during sleep increases as the altitude increases.3,4,7

Decreased Sleep Efficiency 

Compared with sea level, several studies have depicted that sleep at higher altitude is characterized by decreased sleep efficiency, prolonged superficial stages of sleep, and reduced stages of deep sleep.12 The image below is a qualitative representation of sleep structure recorded at sea level and at high altitude. The area encircled by the outer line reflects the time in bed and the area of the shaded inner pie chart the time asleep.7,13 The fractions of superficial stages of sleep are symbolized by “NR1&2,” the fractions of deep non-rapid eye movement sleep are represented by “NR3&4,” and the stages of  rapid eye movement sleep are exemplified by “REM.”

Fig. 1. Depicts a qualitative comparison of sleep quality at sea level vs. altitude > 1,500 m13

Shift in Brain Waves 

Everyone is aware of the importance of quality of sleep when it comes to memory processing. One study has associated a decline in sleep-related memory consolidation with the decrease in slow wave-derived encephalographic measures of neuronal synchronization in healthy subjects observed overnight at high altitude.15  Another study by Stadelmann et al. discovered that quantitative spectral analysis of frontal and central EEG derivations reflected an altitude-dependent decrease in slow wave activity.14

Daytime Performance

A study, analyzing sleep disturbances experienced by lowlanders with obstructive sleep apnea during a stay at 2,590 m, discusses the association between sleep disturbances with poor performance in driving simulator tests.11 Studies performed at altitudes of 3800-3900 have revealed that supplementing with nocturnal oxygen improves daytime performance in neuropsychological tests, increases overall sleep quality, and reduces the occurrence of periodic breathing. 9,10 Although further studies are needed, the stated findings suggest that altitude-related alterations in sleep may negatively affect overall daytime performance.7

Can We Acclimate to High Altitude? 

Over time, research points to some sort of acclimation concerning sleep at high altitude; although research analyzing acclimation is very limited. Studies analyzing altitudes between 4,5559 m to 6,835 m have determined that the frequency of periodic breathing increased with the time spent at high altitude altitude.2,12 Opposingly, in studies at lower altitudes such as 1,650 m, 2,590 m and 3,450 m, periodic breathing decreased from the first to the second night.6,8 These observations suggest that there is an altitude-dependent effect of acclimatization on sleep structure. Interestingly, the same study that determined an increase in periodic breathing with time spent at an altitude of 4,559 also noted a decrease in arousal index and normalization of nocturnal oxygen saturation with increased time spent at high altitude.12 Stadelmann et al. determined that there was a statistically significant increase in the number of sleep cycles at higher altitudes with the longer the stay at altitude.14

Dr. Ebert-Santos’s Decision to Continue the Research

Despite recent advances in our understanding of sleep at high altitude, further research is needed to understand how demographics may alter sleep at high altitude, to determine the process of sleep-acclimatization, and to uncover the characteristics of sleep in local-highlanders.7 Dr. Ebert- Santos continues to be an advocate for the Summit County community regarding the effects of high altitude on health and has decided to pursue a study researching the effects of altitude on oxygen saturation during sleep of adults ranging from the ages 25-65 years old. Stay tuned for her process, her results, and her conclusions! 

Caroline, PA-S

References:

  1. Anderson PJ, Wiste HJ, Ostby SA, Miller AD, Ceridon ML, Johnson BD. Sleep disordered breathing and acute mountain sickness in workers rapidly transported to the South Pole (2835m). Respir Physiol Neurobiol 210: 38–43, 2015.
  2. Bloch KE, Latshang TD, Turk AJ, Hess T, Hefti U, Merz TM, Bosch MM, Barthelmes D, Hefti JP, Maggiorini M, Schoch OD. Nocturnal periodic breathing during acclimatization at very high altitude at Mount Muztagh Ata (7,546 m). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182: 562–568, 2010.
  3. Erba P, Anastasi S, Senn O, Maggiorini M, Bloch KE. Acute mountain sickness is related to nocturnal hypoxemia but not to hypoventilation. Eur Respir J 24: 303–308, 2004.
  4. Gallagher, Scot A. High altitude illness: Physiology, risk factors, and general prevention.  Up-to-date.Waltham, Mass.: UpToDate; September 20, 2017. www.uptodate.com. Accessed March 20, 2019.
  5. Jafarian S, Gorouhi F, Taghva A, Lotfi J. High-altitude sleep disturbance: results of the Groningen Sleep Quality Questionnaire survey. Sleep Med 9: 446–449, 2008.
  6. Kohler M, Kriemler S, Wilhelm EM, Brunner-Larocca H, Zehnder M, Bloch KE. Children at high altitude have less nocturnal periodic breathing than adults. Eur Respir J 32: 189–197, 2008.
  7. Konrad E. Bloch, Jana C. Buenzil, Tsogyal D. Latshang, and Silvia Ulrich. Sleep at high altitude: guesses and facts. Journal of Applied Physiology 2015 119:12, 1466-1480. 
  8. Latshang TD, Lo Cascio CM, Stowhas AC, Grimm M, Stadelmann K, Tesler N, Achermann P, Huber R, Kohler M, Bloch KE. Are nocturnal breathing, sleep, and cognitive performance impaired at moderate altitude (1,630–2,590 m)? Sleep 36: 1969–1976, 2013.
  9. Li P, Zhang G, You HY, Zheng R, Gao YQ. Training-dependent cognitive advantage is suppressed at high altitude. Physiol Behav 106: 439–445, 2012.
  10. Luks AM, van MH, Batarse RR, Powell FL, Grant I, West JB. Room oxygen enrichment improves sleep and subsequent day-time performance at high altitude. Respir Physiol 113: 247–258, 1998.
  11. Nussbaumer-Ochsner Y, Schuepfer N, Ulrich S, Bloch KE. Exacerbation of sleep apnoea by frequent central events in patients with the obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome at altitude: a randomised trial. Thorax 65: 429–435, 2010.
  12. Nussbaumer-Ochsner Y, Ursprung J, Siebenmann C, Maggiorini M, Bloch KE. Effect of short-term acclimatization to high altitude on sleep and nocturnal breathing. Sleep 35: 419–423, 2012.
  13. Rechtschaffen A, Kales A. A Manual of Standardized Terminology, Techniques and Scoring System for Sleep Stages of Human Subjects. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, US Government Printing Office, 1968.
  14. Stadelmann K, Latshang TD, Lo Cascio CM, Tesler N, Stoewhas AC, Kohler M, Bloch KE, Huber R, Achermann P. Quantitative changes in the sleep EEG at moderate altitude (1630 m and 2590 m). PLoS One 8: e76945, 2013.
  15. Tesler N, Latshang TD, Lo Cascio CM, Stadelmann K, Stoewhas AC, Kohler M, Bloch KE, Achermann P, Huber R. Ascent to moderate altitude impairs overnight memory improvements. Physiol Behav 139: 121–126, 2015.
Mountaineering

Beyond Acclimatization: Avalanche Safety

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Spring of 2019 in the Colorado high country has certainly been one to remember. Unsure of where work would take me, I waited until the last week to commit to a ski pass for the season, and after all the storms we’ve seen, I’m glad I did. And I can tell that many others are just as excited. I’ve never seen so many people on the weekend slopes and on the surrounding highways.

Meanwhile, the central mountain region has seen a record number of avalanches and fatalities, and Colorado retains the highest statistics in the country. People from all over the world come for world-class skiing, but many experienced locals have been avalanche victims. We often assume they are skiers and snowboarders, but avalanche fatalities happen just as often to snowmobilers and backcountry hikers. Another misconception is that these avalanches are happening exclusively in the backcountry, which they are not. Three young men this year barely escaped an inbounds avalanche at Breckenridge ski area, while two weren’t so fortunate in New Mexico’s Taos Ski Valley.

But the wild Colorado backcountry still beckons and many continue to answer. Having spent over ten years in Summit County, home to Colorado’s greatest number of peaks over 14,000 ft., my family and I are regulars in the backcountry, in all seasons. Experiencing these mountains in all kinds of conditions can make you much more aware of the risks inherent in the outdoor recreation scene here, but it clearly does not guarantee your safety.

This coming April, I’ll be on a trek to one of the 10th Mountain Division huts, a series of remote cabins, most of which are only accessible by foot, snowshoe or ski. In the summer, the trails tend to be well-maintained and obvious, but I’ve seen first-hand that conditions in snow, even during a mild season, can make the commute much more difficult and much more dangerous. Carrying all your supplies on your back certainly increases your vulnerability and decreases your ability to respond quickly to unexpected events, as you are more liable to sink deeper into loose snow-pack.

Shrine Mountain Inn, one of the more easily-accessed huts in the 10th Mountain Division system, even offers running water and electricity, as is within most cellular networks.

As you may have been taught, luck favors the prepared. If there’s one way to tell a local from a visitor in the high country here, it’s how prepared they are to be outdoors in variable conditions, and as the sole resident on the upcoming hut trip, I will be passing on all the proper safety precautions to my less-experienced San Francisco counterparts.

Expeditions to more popular huts at lower elevations during mild winters tend to be more about preparing comforts: boots, snowshoes, skis that fit well; warm, dry layers; plenty of water; etc. What makes me especially wary of the increased danger and the necessity of avalanche equipment is the alternating warm weather and snow storms. This means several alternating layers of heavy snow and light pack, making large slabs of snow (and ice) more prone to letting loose and leveling everything in their way.

While there are some obvious measures you can take and gear you can pack to boost your ability to respond in case of an avalanche, professionals across the state can’t recommend official avalanche safety certification highly enough. It’s available across the globe, thanks to the American Institute for Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE), and Colorado is one of the best places to get certified.

Technology has come a long way when it comes to avalanche safety, but the three things AIARE recommends you carry while in the backcountry are a transceiver (a beacon), a probe (for finding buried victims) and a shovel. Local conditions are updated daily on Colorado’s Information Marketplace Avalanche Information Center. Be sure to check the very day you plan to be in areas of high risk, and as frequently as possible.

On a closing note, keep in mind that avalanche safety measures aren’t always as intuitive as carrying a shovel. One major statistic we should all keep in mind is that most avalanches don’t happen on their own, and are caused by the victims themselves, often because there is more than one person traversing a slope at a time. In this case, safety is not in numbers: one person on a slope at a time.

I love Colorado, I love the mountains, I love the ski slopes, I always appreciate the vast open wilderness of the Rockies, and I’m looking forward to many more upcoming excursions in them. Hopefully this has armed you with some knowledge to better equip your daring high country adventures. It is just the tip of the proverbial ice berg, however, and on top of certification and gear, there is no end to the value that actual experience adds.

Roberto Santos is from the remote island of Saipan, in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. He has since lived in Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, and has made Colorado his current home, where he is a web developer, musician, avid outdoorsman and prolific reader. When he is not developing applications and graphics, you can find him performing with the Denver Philharmonic Orchestra, snowboarding Vail or Keystone, soaking in hot springs, or reading non-fiction at a brewery.